These are turbulent times as we look forward to the dawn of a new century and the beginning of a new millennium. The forces of globalisation have enveloped most countries in the present-day world. Globalisation is reinforcing and accentuating the existing unequal relationships of power and income between the first world and the other economies. The rich are becoming richer and the poor are getting pauperized. Alongside, the massive upheaval that globalisation has brought about, engulfing substantial sections of the global community, albeit in different ways and at an uneven pace, revolutions in information technology are ushering in an information age that will intensify global interconnectedness on the one hand. On the other, what we are witnessing is the widening of the gap between the information rich and the information deprived, both at the international, national and community levels.

In India, the full impact of globalisation has not been experienced so far. However, as the march towards economic restructuring continues relentlessly, there are fast developing changes that are bringing about important transformations at various levels. The signs of marginalisation of vast sections of the Indian population in terms of growing disparities in income, health care facilities, educational opportunities and other measures of human well being, are becoming increasingly manifest. Overcoming this process of marginalisation requires concerted efforts on many fronts; political, social, economic and educational. One important element of such efforts is the provision of basic education to all persons (Adult Education in a Polarizing World 1997).

The 1990 World Conference on Education for All, held in Jomtien, Thailand, put the concept of 'education for all' on the world's agenda and led to widespread commitment to the goal of 'meeting basic learning needs' of all persons, whether they be children, youth or adults.

Most of the progress, however, has taken the form of increased enrolments of children in formal schooling. While universal access to schooling is crucial, extending basic education to children is only part of the picture. Masses of illiterate and poorly educated adults are still inadequately prepared to participate in the emerging global society as parents, workers and citizens. Concerted attention to the basic and continuing education of adults would therefore have to be paid to stem the divisive and destructive forces of globalisation and of economic restructuring.

Basic Education of Adults- an evolving concept

Traditionally, the term literacy refers to reading and writing skills but many adult literacy programmes to-day are organised around broader aims and content than just literacy and numeracy. The term is sometimes also used with reference to various other kinds of basic knowledge and skills such as 'computer literacy.' 'legal literacy,' 'scientific literacy' etc.

Recent trends around the world, however, indicate that it is necessary to move beyond a narrow concept of adult basic education. The World Declaration on Education for All states, "what is needed is an 'expanded vision' that surpasses present resource levels, institutional structures, curricula and conventional delivery systems while building on the best in current practices" (Article 2).

Another important development has been the breakdown of the traditional distinction between the initial literacy phase and continuing education. While for some time to come, countries where illiteracy among adults is widespread will continue to promote literacy, there is an increasing recognition that learning is for people of all ages, not merely the young. The rapid changes now occurring in all countries require that knowledge and skills be updated continuously.

Consequently, the concept of adult basic education is now considered as an important component of 'lifelong education.' To meet the challenges of the present times, 'the education of adults would have to be life-long and full scale and would have to be available through a variety of sources in a multiplicity of settings, using multifarious methods and media, meeting needs from literacy to law, from simple accounting to computing, and from writing to painting' (Bhola 1997).

Distance education thus far has confined itself mainly to the tertiary education of adults. This has been so with regard to the distance education system in India. But with the challenges of the present times and the demands for providing life long education to adults, the distance education system would have to gear itself to meeting these new challenges. The distance education system would thus have to prepare itself to addressing a somewhat new clientele group, namely adults- male and female- who would be semiliterate or maybe neo-literate, who live in rural areas or in urban slums and who have varying learning needs.

This paper will focus primarily on women learners and will attempt to synthesize research findings that highlight the special characteristics of women learners in distance education. Recent developments in feminist pedagogy, will also provide meaningful insights regarding the strategies that need to be used for effectively reaching women in distance education.

Gender as an issue in Distance Education

During 1980s, feminist concerns surfaced in distance education communities world-wide. In 1988, the book titled Towards New Horizons: International Perspectives on Women in Distance Education, featuring articles by contributors from thirteen countries, focussed on developing more gender-sensitive approaches to distance education. Attention was drawn to giving women more visibility, for an accurate representation of their concerns in course materials, for the need to use gender-inclusive language. Faith (1988) enumerates some of the issues raised for distance educators-

a. Revision of approaches to course development and delivery so as to ensure that androcentric bias no longer dominates course design. content or tutorial style;

b. Investigation of students' course and programme selection and, where warranted, development of programmes to encourage female participation in traditionally male subject areas- especially in math, the sciences and uses of technology;

c. Recognition that most adult female learners need assistance in planning vocational goals and choosing study programmes appropriate to those goals, if we are to contribute to the undoing of the 'feminization of poverty;'

d. Appreciation of the reality that many female students. including those who are employed, have primary or sole responsibility as parents. a factor which has an enormous effect on study patterns;

c. Consideration of female students' unique needs in the planning and provision of student support services-including counselling which takes into account the fact that female students commonly suffer from low self-esteem.

The issue of gender in distance education, as in other sectors of education, has met with varying responses from educational planners and administrators, ranging from support and understanding to condescension and hostility. The practice of distance education will, therefore, take some time to improve. But the research studies. presently available, are already validating some of the issues raised above. Most of the research studies have been undertaken mainly in the West and relate to women studying in the tertiary sector. Gomathy Mani (1 988) and Kanwar and Jagannathan's (1 995) books are the first attempts to put together various aspects of gender and distance education in India. Most of the work in India, however, is descriptive, as research on gender in distance education is still in an embryonic stage. However, the salient findings of the studies done so far corroborate and validate the experiences of the women's activist groups that have been raising consciousness of poor women on gender issues. It would therefore be worthwhile to highlight the main issues so that effective strategies can be designed for women studying in distance education, whether at the tertiary or basic levels.

The issue of women's lack of self-confidence and low self-esteem on returning to tertiary study is now well known (Kirkup & Prummer 1990; Hipp 1997). This lack of self-confidence, however, is endemic to women and cuts across class, caste, even national boundaries. Due to a variety of reasons including societal norms and mores, process of acculturation and personal experiences, most women exhibit extreme lack of confidence when beginning their studies. Coupled with the confidence issue is what Belenky et al (1986) call 'finding their voices.' This is a positive reinforcement and an assurance that women need that they are intelligent, that they are capable of learning. The research study of Kirkup and Prummer (1990) showed that due to their low self esteem, some women stopped attending a study centre because they were intimidated by their male colleagues or by the attitude displayed by the tutor. Manjulika and Reddy (1996) point out how most women 'think within the parameters of their traditional social conditioning' and this is reflected in their choice of courses of study. According to Hipp (1 997) one way of increasing confidence and self esteem would be to run workshops, tele-conferences or develop self help materials for women students to work through. In addition, teaching staff in individual subjects would need to be encouraged to give positive and constructive feedback on students' work to ensure that confidence is enhanced rather than eroded.

Distance education can be a very isolating experience. Since isolation is in any case socially structured into women's lives, the female 'independent learner' does not enjoy or benefit from isolation that is characteristic of distance education. The research study of Kirkup and Prummer (1 990) showed that women distance education students were more interested than men in elements of interactive learning, and were more inclined to make use of local study centres to obtain this. They therefore question whether the concept of independence in distance education is modelled on male learning styles. Rathore's study (1996) showed that due to their personal and social problems and responsibilities, the women learners had a strong desire to get tutorial help as and when needed. Hipp research study (1997) has corroborated previous studies that showed that women have preference for shared learning . According to her the women students need to communicate with the university and with others in order to establish a strong identity within the university culture. This also helps them to acknowledge their role as a student. The interaction can be achieved in a variety of ways - by teleconferencing, written comments or electronic means, not just face to face. Through such an interaction women, some for probably the first time realise that there are others like them who have the same doubts and difficulties and who are grappling with @~"'-of the same issues. It is, therefore, important in designing any distance education system that an effort is made for creating network of support amongst students and providing them opportunities to meet and to interact with one another.

A major problem women face in attending study centres is the pressure of family and personal responsibilities such as taking care of children, performing household chores, or attending to the sick in the family. Since family commitments are time consuming, women find it extremely difficult to fit visits to a study centre into their schedule. The study done by Kirkup and Prummer (1 990) showed that for some students it was the overwhelming problem of juggling their studies in addition to work and family commitments which made it difficult to attend the study centre. Jagannathan's survey, 1995 of the women students taking the Bachelor's in Library Sciences indicated that request for separate study centres for women and (b) the working hours of the study centres and the libraries should be convenient to the women students.

According to Berge and Lenskyj, (1 990) women learners come to class with specific personal histories, learning styles, and expectations that are shaped to varying degrees by their experiences as girls and women in a society characterised by male power and privilege. In addition to the barriers posed by sex discrimination, many women are doubly or triply disadvantaged as members of ethnic minorities, as working class women, or as members of other marginalised groups. In order to ascertain the sort of education and support services that would be appropriate to women's needs, it would be necessary to understand and know more about their experiences, their learning needs, the difference and diversity among them so that a more learner centred approach is planned and implemented for them.

The literature on feminist emancipatory education suggests that women have different learning needs from men. Also there is an increasing recognition that nearly all educational systems have been initially designed for the education of men, with a knowledge based predominantly based on a rationality that was socially constructed by white males (Tisdell, 1993). Belenky et al, (1 986) suggest that women seem to do best in learning environment where affective forms or knowledge that comes from life experience are valued. In short they do best in learning environments where there is an effort to relate theoretical concepts to real life experience.

The idea of capitalising on learner's life experiences and relating theoretical concepts to these experiences is not new in the adult education literature. What is new, however, is the emphasis feminist pedagogy places on the importance of women in particular reclaiming and validating the learning that comes from life experience as women. Belenky et al (1986) argue that many women are alienated from traditional education because it does not take account of them as 'connective knowers'. The study done by Clinchy et al (quoted in Hipp, 1997) showed that the women learners espoused in particular the 'midwife' model of education where knowledge and ideas are drawn out by making the students' own tacit knowledge explicit and elaborating it.

Belenky, Clinchy, Goldburger and Tarule's (1986) connected teaching methods and connecting learning environments seem to help women to see themselves as independent thinkers and constructors of knowledge which is more likely to lead to social action.

The experience of Mahila Samakhya Programme in India (translated to mean Education for Women's Empowerment) is beginning to show that as poor rural women become more confident, they find a stronger voice in their own learning. Rather than being passive recipients of education, women have started reclaiming and integrating their own knowledge and meshing it with what others are saying and writing.

The starting point in programmes such as Mahila Samakhya is an investigation of the social reality by women, an examination of the problems faced by them, a process of critical analysis leading to collective action against injustices suffered by them in the home, the work place and society. The educational process enables women to ask questions, seek answers, act, reflect on actions and raise new questions.

As women have gradually become empowered at the individual and collective levels, they have been able to address themselves to problems such as access to drinking water, payment of minimum wages, access to health services, ensuring functioning of the village school, as well as children's participation in education and have taken collective action against domestic and social violence. Every issue that has been taken up by women has resulted in an educational activity. When the women's collective (Mahila Sangha) has decided to take up an issue for debate or action, it has involved a systematic analysis of the problem, collection of necessary information, visit to the block of district headquarters and collective planning on the course of action. Mahila Samakhya has given women a voice in the villages, provided legal and administrative support and has made systematic endeavors to improve women's access to the available educational and developmental facilities. In this manner, the Mahila Samakhya approach has become an integral part of the strategy for mobilising women for participation in development. E!sewhere in South Asia, a large number of NG0s and also some government departments/Ministries have been running educational programmes for women and girls whose stated goal is to empower women.

Empowerment and Structural Adjustment: The issue of empowerment has not received sufficient attention from distance educators so far' While Kanwar (1995) talks about the importance of distance education for women's empowerment, the strategies for bringing this about have not been spelt out. The term 'empowerment' however, has to be understood within the larger context of globalisation and of the macro economic changes that are taking place. For the increased interest in empowerment comes at a time when structural adjustment policies are being implemented in many of the developing countries. A review of the experiences of countries that have been given structural adjustment loans shows that while the adjustment programmes have been found to have mixed effects on the national economies, the adverse effects are believed to be particularly damaging in human development sectors like education (Tilak, 1992). Tilak's review further showed that as the income and living conditions get seriously affected during the process of adjustment, the demand for education undergoes a decline. This is more true in the case of the weaker sections. Demand for education falls due to changes in labour market - increased levels of unemployment, reduced levels of wage earnings and earnings differentials, corresponding increase in the need for participation in the labour market and increased costs of education due to privatisation. Women, particularly poor women, have been known to bear the brunt of the structural adjustment policies. Some of the consequences of these policies are low enrolment and increased drop out rates at the primary level, lower participation rate by women in literacy classes due to greater priority for meeting daily survival needs, increase in the drudgery of women's work as fuel, fodder, water collection become more difficult, further decline in their health and nutrition standard, retrenchment of women from the organised sector and higher demand for women as 'cheap' labour through expansion of home based and ancillary units. In other words, it is economic concerns, survival issues and livelihood pressures that are going to affect the lives of poor women. Given the irreversible nature of these macro economic changes that are taking place, the question to be asked is, what kind of educational interventions would effectively meet the challenges posed by structural adjustment?

Presently, there is very little evidence of the kind of educational interventions that have been found to be effective. In the case of distance education, the new advances in information technology through satellites, computers and others electronic networking technologies of communication are creating a society variously described as 'post industrial' , 'information based' , 'knowledge based' society etc. The field of distance education is in a ferment as a 'paradigm shift' is now to take place of education that has 1 provided instruction' to education that will 'produce learning'. The concept of cooperative learning is gaining ground. The conventional view that knowledge can be transmitted in whole from the teacher to the student is being replaced by a critical and collaborative approach to constructing meaning and confirming understanding. While new technologies can be successfully utilised for social education and for awareness generation through networking of creatively designed modules focussing on small group interactions, the danger of technology-driven cooperative learning where problems of access and equity can get further exacerbated, is very real. Given this likely future scenario, it might be best for distance educators to learn from the experiences of a growing number of NG0s that have initiated efforts to ameliorate the economic hardships experienced by the poor in the present context. One of the areas is to ensure that the poor, particularly women, have access to and control over natural resources. Related, but equally central is the issue of organising to put pressure to influence public policy and legislation in favour of the economic enterprises of the poor women. Another important area is improving the sustainability of subsistence economic efforts. This could include a variety of interventions like organic and sustainable agriculture, forestry and water harvesting, regeneration of the natural resource base, utilisation of the local economy for meeting local needs etc. In the short run, development of local subsistence base for the rural poor would be crucial to allow them to stand up to market pressures and state regulatory measures. In the long run, a re-generative economy would move away from both market and state, with local self reliance in production and fulfilment of basic needs of communities (Omvedt and Gala, undated).

Clearly, the educational interventions for women would have to evolve in response to specific local contexts. While the critical role of education would be to empower women generally, special emphasis would have to be laid on empowering women about 'market and political institutions'. Omvedt and Gala suggest that a beginning could be made with those sectors in which women have traditionally played a major economic role (vegetable and fruit production, milk processing, weaving, textiles etc.), provide training and resources, upgrade skills so as to help their modernisation and gradually strengthen these sectors within the total economy. Skills training as part of the educational programme, would become one meaningful intervention. But more importantly, poor women would have to organised and simultaneously links would have to be established with other affected groups such as the workers in the organised and unorganised sectors. Links would also have to be established with the peasant movement, the environment movement, the women's movement and the like to ensure that the interests of all weaker sections are safeguarded. For it is coalitions and alliances (possibly cutting across different women's organisations and political affiliations) that would help to build a broad based local and national movement to work as pressure groups.

The tasks before distance education system are enormous. Whether the system would take on the new challenges and begin to respond to the education needs of vast sections of society, remains to be seen.

Contact Info:

Dr. Anita Dighe
Director, Centre for Extension Education
Indira Gandhi National Open University
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi - 110 068