Project-based learning is a popular and effective approach
to learning and instruction in adult basic education. Project-based
learning and similar approaches (known collectively as PBL) engage learners
in authentic, problem-solving activities. Many adult educators have
found that PBL is an excellent way to give adult learners solid experience
in the use of new information and communications technologies.
Heide Wrigley (1998) reviewed the history of PBL and the state of current practice of project-based learning in adult basic education in the United States and concluded that project-based learning in adult literacy programs has been shaped by the American progressive education tradition, theories of learning through social interaction influenced by the social development theory of Lev Vygotsky, and the forms of participatory and emancipatory education inspired by Paulo Freire's writing. Wrigley (1998) also sees a formative influence from community action research in adult literacy programs in developing countries as well as in the United States. In practice, these influences have combined to create a style of PBL in adult literacy that is characterized by learner choice of problems and projects, collaborative learning, research, ongoing assessment, and a mentoring role for instructors (Moss & Van Duzer, 1998; Gaer, 1998; Rosen, 1998; Green, 1998).
This digest introduces the basic
elements of project-based learning (and the closely related approach,
problem-based learning), gives some examples of applications
of PBL in adult basic education, and reviews the findings of research
on PBL.
The are some differences between project-based learning and problem-based learning (see Esch 1998). Project-based learning is the term most often used for applications of PBL in K-12 education where the process typically begins with an end product or "artifact" in mind, the production of which requires specific content knowledge or skills (Katz & Chard, 1989; Chard, 1992; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; Au & Carroll, 1997). Problem-based learning is the preferred term for applications of PBL in higher education, where, as the name implies, the learning process begins with a problem to be solved (Barrows, 1996; Schmidt, 1994; Williams, 1992). In adult basic education, the term project-based learning is generally used to describe an instructional approach that combines both the production and the inquiry aspects of PBL.
A production-oriented version of PBL may include the following steps:
1. Students define the purpose for creating the end product and identify their audience.The entire process is meant to be authentic, mirroring real world production activities and utilizing students’ own ideas and approaches to accomplish the tasks at hand.
2. They research their topic, design their product, and create a plan for project management.
3. Students then begin the project, resolve problems and issues that arise in production, and finish their product.
4. Students may use or present the product they have created, and ideally are given time to reflect on and evaluate their work (Esch, 1998; Blumenfeld et al., 1991).
An inquiry-oriented version of PBL typically includes the following steps:
1. Students are presented with (or select) a problem.Again, students ideally have adequate time for reflection and self-evaluation. (Esch, 1998; Delisle, 1997; Hoffman & Ritchie, 1997; Stepian & Gallagher, 1993).
2. They begin by organizing any previous knowledge on the subject, posing any additional questions, and identifying areas where they need more information.
3. Students devise a plan for gathering more information, then do the necessary research and reconvene to share and summarize their new knowledge.
4. Students may present their conclusions, and there may or may not be an end product.
As can be seen in the above descriptions, activities in the two versions of PBL are parallel and overlapping. In adult basic education the desire to support collaborative learning process and to address learner-generated problems often leads to a form of PBL that combines authentic production and inquiry processes.
In theory, learners engaged in PBL should choose topics
and issues for projects themselves (Wrigley, 1998; Green, 1998), but for
some learners (e.g., lower-level ESOL classes) a project topic may be assigned
(Gaer, 1998). Donna Moss and Carol Van Duzer (1998) describe a project
developed by the staff of the Arlington (Virginia) Education and Employment
Program (REEP) for a family literacy class. Adults in the class together
with their elementary school children brainstormed ideas and then jointly
produced the content for a coloring and activity community information
book.
Cooperation with other learners and with teachers is a hallmark of project-based learning. Heide Wrigley (1998) describes a project conducted at El Barrio Popular Education Program, in East Harlem, New York, that started with women cooking and sharing food and then, through discussion and research, grew into a catering business. In PBL, learners often divide up tasks and take on roles that mirror the teamwork and division of labor in the workplace.
Project-based learning engages learners in systematic and in-depth inquiry. Making plans and doing research are key features of PBL (Moss & Van Duzer, 1998; Wrigley, 1998; Rosen, 1998). The website created by the Mothers United for Jobs, Education and Results (MUJER) project displays the impressive and extensive results of inquiry done by the women in the San Antonio, Texas, Culebra Workforce Center’s “Choices” class (see Anson Green’s websites below and http://members.aol.com/CulebraMom/mujer.html).
Assessment is a central and ongoing component of project-based learning. Donna Moss and Carol Van Duzer (1998) describe a second REEP project in which an advanced ESL class worked together to produce lessons for other classes in the program. The students developed evaluation criteria and discussed the features of a successful presentation. They then used the evaluation criteria to provide feedback to each other as they rehearsed lessons as well as for the final evaluation of the delivery of the lessons.
Teachers are guides and facilitators in PBL. Susan Gaer (1998) describes her experience in developing a folktale project with a beginning ESL class of Southeast Asian refugees. The students in the class had strong storytelling skills and a rich oral tradition. Although the students were at first uncertain about their own ability to successfully complete the project, with some coaching from their instructor and by working in collaboration with middle school students they were able to write down, illustrate, publish, and preserve their traditional folklore.
[Learn more about applications of PBL]
Recently, two reviews have summarized more than 20 years of evaluations of PBL in medical education (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993; Vernon & Blake, 1993). These studies show that medical students in PBL programs perform as well as students in traditional programs on conventional tests of knowledge. In addition, PBL medical students do better on tests of clinical problem-solving skills.
At the other end of the schooling spectrum, there have been positive findings from research on the project approach in early childhood and elementary education (Katz, 1994; Chard, 1992). The Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP) in Hawaii, California, and Arizona (Au & Carroll, 1997; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988) is just one example of positive learning gains associated with an instructional approach that incorporates PBL.
PBL is especially effective when supported by educational technology (Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Means & Olson, 1997). Evaluations of K-12 instruction have shown strong evidence of learning gains associated with PBL plus technology (Ryser, Beeler, McKenzie, 1995; Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1992; Pellegrino et al., 1992). In one of the best documented programs combining PBL and technology, eighth graders in the Union City (New Jersey) Interactive Multimedia Education Trial scored approximately 10% higher than students from other urban and special needs districts on statewide assessments of reading, mathematics, and writing achievement (Education Development Center, 1994).
Research on the outcomes of PBL in adult basic education, whether supported by technology or not, remains to done. As Heide Wrigley (1998) writes in her conclusion, “We all await research that can capture the many dimensions of learning that project-based learning addresses: gaining meaning from reading authentic materials; writing for an audience; communicating with others outside of the classroom; working as part of a team, and giving voice to one’s opinions and ideas, using literacy to affect change.” Wrigley’s comments highlight the challenges facing research on PBL in adult basic education. Documenting all the dimensions of learning she mentions will require new and creative forms of assessment. As PBL transforms the roles of learner and teacher and the learning process it also transforms the nature of learning outcomes. The benefits of PBL are already apparent to the learner and teachers who have experienced it, but these benefits may not become apparent to others until new forms of assessment are developed to capture the varieties of learning that PBL supports.
[Learn more about research on PBL]
Albanese, M. A. & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based
learning: A review of literature on its outcomes and implementation issues.
Academic Medicine, 68(1), 52-81.
Au, K. & Carroll, J. H. (1997). Improving literacy achievement through a constructivist approach: The KEEP demonstration classroom project. Elementary School Journal, 97, 203-221.
Barrows, H. (1985). Designing a problem based curriculum for the pre-clinical years. New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. In L. Wilkerson & W. H. Gijselaers (Eds.) Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice (pp. 3-12). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26(3&4), 369-398.
Boud, D. & Feletti, G. (1992). The challenge of problem-based learning. London: Kogan Page.
Carver, S. M., Lehrer, R., Connell, & Erickson, J. (1992). Learning by hypermedia design: Issues of assessment and implementation. Educational Psychologist, 27(3), 385-404.
Chard, Sylvia C. (1992). The project approach: A practical guide for teachers. Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Printing Services.
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1992). The Jasper Series as an example of anchored instruction: Theory, program description, and assessment data. Educational Psychologist, 27(3), 291-315.
Delisle, R. (1997). How to use problem-based learning in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Dewey, J. (1900). The school and society. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Dewey, J. (1929). My pedagogical creed. Washington, DC: Progressive Education Association.
Education Development Center. (1994). Union City Interactive Multimedia Education Trial: 1993-1994 summary report. New York: Educational Development Center.
Gaer, S. (1998). Less teaching, more learning. Focus on Basics 2 (D):
Green, A. (1998). Mothers United for Jobs Education and Results. 1997-8 Project FORWARD Learning Project Summary. San Antonio, TX:
Hoffman, B., & Ritchie, D. (1997, March) Using multimedia to overcome the problems with problem based learning. Instructional Science, 25(2), 97-115.
Katz, L.G. and S.C. Chard. (1989). Engaging children's minds: the project approach. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Means, B. & Olson, K. (1997). Technology and education reform (ORAD 96-1330). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Pellegrino, J.W., Hickey, D., Heath, A., Rewey, K., & Vye, N. J. (1992). Assessing the outcomes of an innovative instructional program: The 1990-1991 implementation of the "Adventures of Jasper Woodbury." Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University, Learning Technology Center.
Ryser, G. R, Beeler, J. E., & McKenzie, C. M. (1995). Effects of a Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environment (CSILE) on students' self-concept, self-regulatory behavior, and critical thinking ability. Journal of Educational Computing Research 13(4), 375-385.
Stepien, W.J., and Gallagher, S.A. (1993). Problem-based learning: As authentic as it gets. Educational Leadership, 50(7), 25-8.
Tharp, R. G. & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social context. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Vernon, D. T. A. & Blake, R. L. (1993). Does problem-based learning work? A meta-analysis of evaluation research. Academic Medicine, 68(7), 550-563.
Williams, S. M. (1992). Putting case-based instruction into context: Examples from legal and medical education. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 2(4), 367-427.
Moss, D. (1998). Project-based learning and assessment: A resource manual for teachers. Arlington, VA: Arlington Education and Employment Program (REEP).
Van Duzer, C. (1994). Report to the adult education network. Arlington, VA: Arlington Education and Employment Program (REEP).
Wrigley, H.S. (1998). Knowledge in action: The promise
of project-based learning. Focus on Basics, 2 (D), 13-18.
To learn more about project-based learning (PBL) try a keyword search on the terms above or try the following links to resources we found.
Project-based or problem-based: The same or different?
Camille Esch
http://pblmm.k12.ca.us/PBLGuide/PBL&PBL.htm
PBL Network. Autodesk Foundation
http://www.autodesk.com/foundation/pbl/
Project-based learning for adult English language learners.
Donna Moss and Carol Van Duzer
http://www.cal.org/ncle/DIGESTS/ProjBase.htm
Knowledge in action: The promise of project-based learning.
Heide S. Wrigley
http://gseweb.harvard.edu/~ncsall/wrigley.htm
Project-based learning. NCSALL / Focus on Basics, Volume
2, Issue D, December 1998
http://gseweb.harvard.edu/~ncsall/fobv2id.htm
Project-based Learning, Inquiry Maps, and the Internet.
David Rosen and others
http://www2.wgbh.org/mbcweis/ltc/alri/I.M.html
The Center for Problem-Based Learning. Illinois Mathematics
and Science Academy
http://www.imsa.edu/team/cpbl/cpbl.html
What does research say about problem-based learning?
Regie Stites
http://pblmm.k12.ca.us/PBLGuide/pblresch.htm
The Project Approach. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary
and Early Childhood Education
http://ericps.crc.uiuc.edu/eece/project.html
A brief overview of progressive education. John Dewey
Project on Progressive Education
http://www.uvm.edu/~dewey/proged.html
Constructivist
theory (Jerome Bruner). Greg Kearsley, Theory into practice database
http://www.hfni.gsehd.gwu.edu/~tip/bruner.html
Anchored
instruction (John Bransford and CTGV). Greg Kearsley, Theory
into practice database
http://www.hfni.gsehd.gwu.edu/~tip/anchor.html
Situated
learning (Jean Lave). Greg Kearsley, Theory into practice database
http://www.hfni.gsehd.gwu.edu/~tip/lave.html
Social
development theory (Lev Vygotsky). Greg Kearsley, Theory into
practice database
http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/vygotsky.html
Jerome Bruner
Biographical
notes on Jerome Bruner
http://www.law.nyu.edu/faculty/bios/brunerj.html
John Dewey
A
brief introduction to John Dewey by Mark K. Smith on the Informal Education
website
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-dewey.htm
Links
to resources on John Dewey can be found on the Links to the World of
John Dewey website
http://www.cisnet.com/teacher-ed/dewey.html
The
Center for Dewey Studies is a comprehensive site for work by and about
John Dewey
http://www.siu.edu/~deweyctr/index.html
Paulo Freire
Biographical
notes on Paulo Freire
http://www.nl.edu/ace/Resources/Freire.html
Lev Vygostky
Vygotsky
Centennial Project
http://www.massey.ac.nz/~ALock/virtual/project2.htm
Biographical
notes on Lev Vygotsky
http://www.bestpraceduc.org/people/LevVygotsky.html
Anson
Green's Women and Literacy Web Page
http://members.aol.com/ansongreen/welcome.html
Mothers
United for Jobs, Education, and Results (MUJER)
http://members.aol.com/CulebraMom/mujer.html
Less
teaching more learning. Susan Gaer
http://gseweb.harvard.edu/~ncsall/gaer.htm
Project-Based
Learning with Multimedia. The Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project
http://pblmm.k12.ca.us/topics_main.htm